Conserving one of the world’s greatest manuscript collections
An early attempt at conservation. Here we see a scroll bearing the psalms unrolled on a work surface. (Photo: Nayib Albina)
The Dead Sea Scrolls are widely considered one of the greatest archaeological discoveries in modern times. penned 2,000 years ago, the scrolls are the oldest written record of biblical texts ever discovered. how has this great collection, hidden for so many years in Judea’s solitary desert caves, survived? Abigail Vanderhart reveals the past, present, and future of the Dead Sea Scrolls.
Nearly 75 years ago, in the heart of Bethlehem, two bedouin
shepherds walked into Kando’s cobbler’s shop with four rolls of parchment in
hand. Jum’a and Muhammed ed-Dib had found the scrolls in a cave near the Dead
Sea, stored inside tall ceramic jars. Unaware of their discovery’s true value,
Jum’a and Muhammed sold the parchments to Kando, who was both a cobbler and an antiquities
dealer. If the parchment had no historic value, at least Kando could use it as
leather for cobbling. Thankfully, Kando saw the potential significance of the
scrolls, and did not use them to repair shoes. Although he could not read the letters
on the parchment, they resembled ancient Syriac writing Kando had seen in
Bethlehem’s Orthodox Church. This prompted him to offer the scrolls to Archbishop
Samuel, who purchased them for 24 Palestine pounds – about $100 at the time.
The first examples of the texts now collectively known as the Dead Sea Scrolls were found in the 1940s. We now know that they were hidden during the 1st century AD in tall jars within numerous caves, including this one at Qumran.
Meanwhile, Professor E L Sukenik from the Hebrew University
heard rumours about scrolls discovered near the Dead Sea from an Armenian
friend. Intent on investigating the discovery, Sukenik and his friend met on
opposite sides of the militarised border separating West and East Jerusalem.
Peering through the barbed wire, Sukenik examined the sample fragment his
friend brought. Sukenik was convinced that the scrolls were authentic, and the
pair travelled through the military zones to Bethlehem. On 29 November 1947,
the very same day the United Nations voted in favour of establishing a State of
Israel, Sukenik purchased three scrolls from an antiquities dealer in
Bethlehem.
Modern conservation treatment. Here we see a fragment being carefully cleaned.
Sukenik also learned about Archbishop Samuel’s four scrolls,
which had been taken to St Mark’s Monastery in Jerusalem. By February 1948,
however, Archbishop Samuel’s assistant at St Mark had recognised the value of
the manuscripts. He made inquiries at the American School of Oriental Research
(ASOR), which is today the W F Albright Institute of Archaeological Research. After
several communications, Professor William F Albright confirmed that the
manuscripts were authentic 2,000-year-old writings. With the War of
Independence looming on the horizon, ASOR advised Samuel to take the scrolls abroad
for safekeeping. It was not until 1 June 1954, when the scrolls appeared for
sale through an advertisement in The Wall Street Journal, that they were
purchased for the State of Israel. At last, the original seven scrolls were
reunited.
Discoveries throughout the 1950s and ’60s revealed scrolls
hidden along the Dead Sea’s western shore, as far north as Wadi Daliyeh and
southward to Masada. The earliest discoveries, however, were made within 11
caves near Khirbet Qumran, an archaeological site close to the Dead Sea’s
north-west shore. Scholars generally agree that Qumran was home to a Jewish
sectarian community that observed strict laws of purity. The site was at its
zenith during the end of the 1st century BC and beginning of the 1st century
AD, about the same time many of the scrolls were written. Excavations at Qumran
revealed more of the type of cylindrical jar the scrolls were stored in, inkwells,
and possibly a ‘scriptorium’ where the scrolls were written. These discoveries,
together with the scrolls’ proximity to the site, led scholars to conclude the
documents belonged to the Qumran community.
A plate is opened to access the scroll within.
This being so, why were the scrolls found in inaccessible
caves rather than at Qumran? One theory suggests the scrolls were hidden for
safekeeping. The Romans razed Qumran in AD 68, during the Great Revolt. Perhaps
the inhabitants anticipated the coming destruction and hid their precious texts
in the surrounding caves, where they remained untouched for centuries.
In total, the ‘Dead Sea Scrolls’, as they began to be
called, are a collection of approximately 1,000 manuscripts, preserved in over
25,000 fragments. The texts include unique sectarian writings, as well as every
book of the Hebrew Bible except Esther. They were written between 250 BC and AD
68: centuries that were pivotal in the history of both Judaism and
Christianity. The scrolls pre-date all other known biblical writings by at
least 1,000 years, and are considered by many to be the most significant
archaeological discovery of the 20th century.
From caves to conservation
The arid climate of the Judean Desert preserved the scrolls
for some 2,000 years. When the scrolls were removed from the caves and brought
to Jerusalem, a change in elevation of about 1,200m, the light exposure and
more-humid climate accelerated the scrolls’ deterioration.
The interest in the Dead Sea Scrolls makes them a popular component of exhibitions. This example is being prepared to go on show. Each appearance of three months is followed by a five-year ‘rest’.
The scrolls suffered further damage after their discovery,
due to unintentional improper handling. Scholars pieced the fragments together
using adhesive tape. They also moistened the parchment and flattened it loosely
between plates of window glass. Sadly, this treatment accelerated deterioration
rather than preventing it. The pressure of the glass and aging of the adhesives
made the parchment darken and become extremely brittle. In the 1960s and ’70s,
about 400 plates of scroll fragments were removed from their glass frames in an
attempt to undo this damage. Unfortunately, the methods used to remove the
adhesive tape and strengthen the parchment resulted in even more damage.
When the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA) was established
in 1990, one of its first projects was to preserve the scrolls. Recognising the
severity of the situation, the IAA built a climate-controlled conservation lab
and appointed four full-time conservators to treat the scrolls. They worked
with international experts to develop conservation treatments that could be
reversed if necessary.
A fragment of Deuteronomy after undergoing infrared imaging at the IAA scroll lab. It demonstrates how hi-tech methods can make writing visible once more.
Today, the IAA adheres to a strict protocol for treating and
preserving the scrolls. Work is still under way to undo the problems caused by
earlier conservation treatments. The most time-consuming task requires removing
the adhesive tape without causing further damage. The adhesive tape, found mostly
on the back of the parchments, is usually removed mechanically with a heated scalpel.
Since, in most cases, the aged adhesives penetrated the scroll fragments, mechanical
removal alone is not sufficient. The full extraction of adhesives requires a chemical
procedure, which may be repeated when necessary. Once the embedded adhesives
have been extracted, tears, cracks, and edges are reinforced from the back. The
IAA estimates that roughly another 20 years are needed to treat the entire
collection, but the conservation process never really ends. The scrolls must be
regularly monitored and revisited for maintenance.
After treatment, scroll fragments are arranged on acid-free
cardboard, attached with hinges of Japanese tissue paper and safely stored in
the IAA’s climate-controlled vault. For optimal preservation, a temperature of
20°C and relative humidity of 48% are maintained where the scrolls are worked
with or stored. The IAA is currently building a new facility, the Lunder Family
Dead Sea Scrolls Conservation and Preservation Laboratory. It will be dedicated
solely to the conservation and preservation of the Dead Sea Scrolls. At this
new lab, visitors will have the opportunity to observe the painstaking efforts
of IAA conservators as they treat these priceless texts.
Oren Ableman, scroll researcher at the Dead Sea Scrolls unit of the IAA, examines how newly legible ink traces on a fragment may fit into the text of the Great Psalms Scroll.
Unsurprisingly, there is worldwide interest in viewing the Dead Sea Scrolls. When travelling to a new exhibition, the scrolls are carefully prepared in a capsule specifically designed to ensure that climate conditions remain stable during transportation and display. The IAA also ensures the receiving venue follows strict protocols to regulate climate and light exposure. For display, the fragments are sewn between two layers of polyester net, stretched in acid-free mounts. These are then enclosed in a frame of polycarbonate plates. To further protect the manuscripts, the IAA rotates the scrolls that are being exhibited. After three months on display, a scroll must ‘rest’ in its climate-controlled home for a period of five years before travelling or being displayed again.
This is an extract of an article featured in issue 99 of Current World Archaeology. Click here for more information about subscribing to the magazine.
Images: Shai Halevi, courtesy of the Israel Antiquities Authority, unless otherwise stated