Taking a new look at the Mongol Empire
The conquests of Genghis Khan are traditionally associated with horrifying brutality, but this reputation has overshadowed another side to the empire that he forged. Matthew Symonds spoke to Marie Favereau to find out more.
Temüjin was still a boy when his father was killed in the second half of the 12th century AD. The consequences for his family were devastating. Although Temüjin’s name meant ‘blacksmith’, he was not the latest in a long line of sedentary metalworkers. Instead, it reflected the importance of iron – and an ability to make it – among the clans of steppe nomads that collectively made up the Mongols. Temüjin’s father had been a leading figure among one of these groups, but his death brought a dramatic reversal of fortune. Temüjin was too young to assume his father’s position; instead, his family was ostracised by their clan and reduced to poverty. It was a brutal fate in the unforgiving world of the steppe, and brought real suffering. But Temüjin was a clever boy with an adventurous streak: a combination of his wits, a favourable marriage – agreed before his father’s death, but still honoured after it – and a knack for knowing when to make or break alliances saw him rise far higher than his father ever had. In 1206, Temüjin was recognised as the emperor of all Mongols, and received the title by which he is known to history: Genghis Khan (now commonly spelled ‘Chinggis Khan’).
By then, Genghis Khan was already in his 40s, which was a venerable age for a steppe nomad of that era. Becoming emperor did not mark the culmination of his career, though. Instead, Genghis Khan set about increasing his territory with a stunning series of conquests in northern China and central Asia. The empire that he forged continued to grow after his death in 1227. At its greatest extent, in 1279, the Mongol Empire stretched from the Sea of Japan to eastern Europe, covering about 22% of the landmass of the Earth. Among the many profound consequences of this was that East and West became more closely connected than ever before. While European travellers and merchants – most famously Marco Polo – were drawn to the empire, so too its influence was felt far beyond its bounds. Italian paintings, for example, began to include Asian faces. There can be no doubt that the little boy who suffered so much left a legacy that changed the world.
Traditionally, suffering is also something that has been closely associated with the rise of the Mongol Empire. Today, Genghis Khan is often viewed as a bloodthirsty warlord whose forces were responsible for massacres and cruelty beyond measure. He is infamous for reputedly issuing a simple ultimatum to cities in his path: surrender or die. That the Mongol Empire did not just deal in violence, though, is illustrated by an array of remarkable artefacts presented in a fascinating new exhibition at the Royal Armouries Museum in Leeds. Genghis Khan: how the Mongols changed the world (see ‘Further information’ box) broadens perspectives of what the Mongols accomplished by examining a wealth of subjects, including nomadic life, administration of the empire, women’s roles, religious policy, craft and technology, and – of course – warfare. The result shows how the Mongol reputation for cruelty has obscured another side to their empire, which was also a place of religious tolerance, technological and artistic innovation, cultural exchange, and promotion based on merit. The exhibition explores, too, how it was that these nomads came to establish the largest contiguous land empire that the world has ever seen.
Constant adaptation
‘What you see with mobile groups like nomads is how human groups can understand changing conditions and learn to live alongside them’, says Marie Favereau, exhibition curator and also curator at Nantes History Museum. ‘For them, it’s really a case of non-stop adaptation. The steppe nomads live in the northern part of the world, and it can be a very cold place. If you go to Mongolia today, in the winter it can reach −40°C, so it’s really something. At the same time, the summer temperatures are hot and go above 30°C, which means that the amplitude is huge. Among the Mongols, the individual groups that travelled together were small, and made up of families, animals, and tents. This is one of the reasons why families were so important, because they really did live in them. As you would expect, these groups moved quite regularly, because otherwise they would exhaust the land. Even staying in one place for a month can risk over-grazing the grassland. The Mongols were very aware of the natural resources available around them and how to manage them.’
‘All of the essentials of everyday activity were carefully tailored to a nomadic way of life. Horses, of course, were essential to the Mongols for transport and war, but they could also travel with many other kinds of animal, including camels, sheep, and goats. A type of fermented mare’s milk called airag was produced seasonally in the spring and summer. This was central to the nomads’ diet and is still made in Mongolia. As the beverage is slightly alcoholic, it is much safer to drink than water in those areas where there isn’t access to a clean supply. So producing and drinking airag was really a way to survive. One thing that is particularly interesting about it is that, while some people are lactose intolerant and can’t drink milk, airag can be digested because of the fermentation process that it undergoes.’
‘The temperature range across the year made clothing very important. Fur coats were used in the winter, while silk is fantastic in both hot and cold conditions. There was – and is – also a type of robe called a deel, which can be worn by men, women, and children. These robes are large, and you wear them with a nice belt. The idea is that you can move very freely in such garments: you can run, you can work, you can ride. Their tents were well designed for a mobile lifestyle as well. These are round, made of felt, coloured white, and in Mongolian they are known as a ger, while Turkic speakers call them yurts, as in the West. Perhaps the first thing that we think of when imagining nomads is that these are people who have no home. But the truth is the exact opposite. These are people who have one home, they love it, and they can take it with them. So everywhere they go, they are always at home.’
Winter was the time of year when the Mongols travelled most regularly. While their diet allowed them to survive the harsh conditions, it was harder for animals to find grass under the snow. This meant that the land was exhausted faster, making it essential to move on frequently. The plunging temperatures even aided the nomads in this, by freezing the rivers and so making it easier to traverse the terrain. Surprisingly, from a Western perspective, winter was also when the Mongols made war. Once again, their motive can be traced to a careful consideration of how nomadic lifestyles were most effectively synched to the cycles of the natural world. In this case, it was much better for the animals in their entourage to be travelling less during the spring and summer months, because this was when they gave birth, and so needed rest. As the young were being nursed, it was the time for milking and producing airag as well. Politics was conducted in this portion of the year, too. Among the Mongols, just like us, this involved a lot of discussion. All of the nomadic elites would get together at an assembly called a kuriltai. Even if there was a city nearby, this gathering would always take place in the steppe, and provided the forum where decisions were taken and justice was administered.
FURTHER INFORMATION
The exhibition Genghis Khan: how the Mongols changed the world will run until 1 November 2026 at the Royal Armouries Museum in Leeds. During the summer, the museum will also host displays of Mongolian riding skills. For more details, including ticket prices and time slots, go to https://royalarmouries.org/ leeds/whats-on/genghis-khan.
This is an extract of an article that appeared in CWA 138. Read on in the magazine (Click here to subscribe) or on our website, The Past, which offers all of the magazine’s content digitally. At The Past you will be able to read each article in full as well as the content of our other magazines, Current Archaeology, Ancient Egypt, and Military History Matters.
